FORM FOUR STUDY NOTES: CULTURE
Aspects and Elements of Culture
The Origin of Culture
It is argued historically that, culture started simultaneously with the creation of man and the formation of communities of people, as they were adopting themselves to their environment and struggled to sustain their livelihoods. As human beings started to struggle for basic needs in their environment, they used different tools, ranging from stone to iron tools such as axes, arrows pots and knives. At the beginning culture was also determined by wearing style. Previously man made clothes using animal‟s skins, grasses and trees. Language was used in communication especially when man established permanent settlements. Language united people during working, such as cultivating and hunting; through language man was able to construct songs and poems, which were used as a part of refreshments particularly when issues arose such as traditional rites. Although culture went hand in hand with human life, it varied according to the needs of the society, and the influence of environment.
Culture has two aspects, namely:
- Material culture;This is the extent of materials or wealth produced or used in a society. It includes the achievements to which one has mastered; level of instrument and technical skills, the scientific organization of labour, the availability of individual material and everyday needs. Instruments of labour are the tools individuals use to carry out material production. Their quality depends on the level of science and technology ofa given society in that particular time in history. The level of material culture is expressed in skills and know-how applied in material production. It is also seen in other material elements of the society’s life. For example, in the objects one uses, such as clothes, furniture and utensils, scientific, academic and medical equipment, as well as transport facilities.
- Intellectual culture;This is societal knowledge, skill and technical ability to organize and produce things as well as how one relates with others. This includes the achievements reached in science, education, ethics, literature and art. It is also reflected in the political ideas, civic education, legal relations, language, speech and behaviour.
(a) Customs and Norms:
Customs refer to short-lived patterns of behaviour shared by members of a groupandcan be directly observed. For instance, people who know each other greet by shaking hands whenever they meet while others hug each other. However, customs differ from one society to another. The set of customs form one of the indicators of culture.
(b) Language:
This is another important element or indicator of culture. Language is a learned, shared and arbitrary system of vocals and symbols through which human beings communicate. It is a system of convectional symbols that covey meaning and is a useful instrument in all economic, social, political, psychological and ideological aspects of society. Language is not only a communicative instrument but also is a product of work. In their effort to produce goods and services, people develop words and therefore, language is further developed. Each language shapes and shows the culture, behaviour patterns and understanding of the group that speaks it. It presents to the learning child a ready–made and distinctive way of looking at the world. It also guides him/her to not only observe the world in a certain way, but also to express him/herself and react in a certain way. Every language has an effect upon what the people use, see and feel, as well as what they talk about.
This is an element or indicator of culture. Art as part of culture is an expression which reflects the feelings, attitudes and level of development of a society. Arts denote man made things displayed to be enjoyed. For instance dramatizing and singing. Any art which originates from a given society has roles to perform for that society. For example, it reflectively shows what people have done in their struggle for survival. The carvings, the painting, the songs, and drama represent certain actual struggles or practical life these people have experienced before.
- Using sound such as in singing or pronouncing a speech.
- When someone combines language and instruments like when doing some things like singing, drumming and dramatizing.
- Visual aids like pictures, maps, paints and cinema.
- Demonstration of cultural troupes, sport, and games.
In their collective form, rules or patterns form another indicator of culture for behaviour, known asNorms. These rules are those that members of a group, community or society agree to follow. The rules determine what is right or wrong in a given society. Norms are connected with ranks as well as situationsandare recognized into roles. The pattern of behaviour expected of people differs fromranks, such as husbands, fathers, citizens, employees, and children.
(e) Recreation:
Another important element of culture is recreation. The word recreation means relaxing and amusement. In any society where work is done, recreation is quite necessary. Work tires the body and mind so it is vital to rest and experienceentertainment. Good entertainment is that which refreshes a person e.g. voluntary hobbies, sports, games, music and even dancing.
Ideology combines the beliefs of peopleandis this element of culture that lays down principles and conditions to be followed by a given society. Ideology formsthe foundation forall other elements of culture. The mode of production is one which explains the way people own property and how they share what they produce.
Laws form another indicator of culture; there is no culture without laws. We can define laws as deliberately formulated rules of behaviour that are enforced by a special authority. Laws serve several purposes; they enforce the mores accepted by the dominant cultural group in the society, regulate new situations not covered by customs and bring about the real cultural and ideal patterns of a society. The enforcement of norms by law in Tanzania is the responsibility of the society and community as a whole. For instance, it is the responsibility of every individual, family and community as a whole to make sure children go to school. Failure to implement this obligation may result in the forces being applied to enforce this law.
this implies interacting with others in the community. It helps not only the members in getting insight into what goes on in the community but also gives a chance to members to learn and benefit from the community. It is very important for each organization to stabilize personal relationships between members of society. This is essential to primary or secondary groups. Primary groups in this context include the family, schools, organized clubs, or villages where members know each other. Secondary groups include large societies and nations.
(i) Tradition:
These are experiences of the past that are inherited by a society and are unchangeable. They include marriage, food, local brews, funeral ceremonies, family care and home economics. Other aspects include initiation, worshiping system, sports and games. Every society has its own tradition.
(j) Crafts and tools:
Tools are instruments of labour used by people for production and they differ from one society to another depending on the nature and level of technology of the society. For example, tools used in the Stone Age were poor compared to the tools used during the Iron Age. These tools included iron hoes, axes and pangas. Crafts are technological creations by man that express man’s culture. Examples of crafts are decorations and carved materials. These differ in form according to the culture of the society. People utilize, and in some cases exploit their environment to make crafts.
The values of culture help future generations to know how to escape from bad practices and evils in the society such as drug and child abuse, stealing and any other kind of bad behaviour which is not proper in society. Ethics are passed by adults to young ones through informal education.
- Traditional ceremonies, such as “ngoma” contribute a lotto the spread of STIs (Sexually Transmitted Infections) and diseases such as HIV/AIDS. Initiation ceremonies which involve circumcision of birth female and male can also cause problems such as the transmission of HIV/AIDS, especially when they are not done properly. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) can cause high bleeding and difficulties during childbirth.
- Through visual arts such as video and television, indigenous culture can be destructed by imposition of foreign culture. Foreign culture is imposed through the media such as radio, printand television. People learn different practices such as inappropriate dress styles, and other things like gay lifestyles.
- Social institutions and religious beliefs can transmit negative attitudes to the people about the culture of a certain society. For example, colonial education and religion imparted ideas of despising Africa culture and glorifying western culture. Christian missionaries said Africa culture was “barbaric”.
- It gives knowledge to people (young ones) on social transformation of different societies.
- It helps people to know their past social settings and laws that have been governing nature in different societies.
- It exposes youngsters to tasks that are similar to those of elders.
- It is a medium for bringing up youth in order to cope inasociety.
- It enables people to transmit their skills, knowledge and wisdom from one generation to another.
- It equips learners with insightful knowledge on bad and good cultural practices and therefore chooses the positive ones.
- Among the most outstanding aspects of our cultural values are:
- Respect among members of a given societies.18Here, children are taught how to respect their parents and elders. Every person in the society has the right to be treated with respect.
- Respect for the law is another positive cultural value, because t helps to maintain order and discipline in that given society. In a society with peace and order no one is above the law.
- Care for the old, sick and disabled is a positive cultural value. It is the responsibility of the society to take care of them, since they are a product of the society. The old, for instance, were once strong people who gave birth to off springs who are now the strong able bodied people of the society.
- The communal self help is a crucial culture value as it promotes performance of collective work in the society for the betterment of the people of the people themselves.Care for the young is a very vital cultural value and it is done not only by parents but all members of the community. In traditional societies, each adult person was a teacher and care taker to the young.
- Community co-operation as a cultural value and it is done not only by parents but all members of the community. In traditional societies, each adult person was a teacher and care taker to the young.Community co-operation as a cultural value is important in that it is promoting interaction among members of the society. Such co-operation brings unity and increases the ability of the community in carrying out various communal activities.Proper or descent dressing according to local or national norms is another positive cultural value because it preserves ones good personality. It makes the wearer look descent and acceptable in different situations depending on the nature of one‟s occupation, occasion and time for the dressing and the place in question.
- Participation in civil activities is a positive cultural value since it brings people together towards performing different constructive activities for the betterment of all the people e.g. constructing roads, building schools for our children or even building dispensaries and clinics in places where there is that demand.
- Hard work is another positive cultural value certainly because through hard work a person is able to produce more and better goods and service for the betterment of oneself, the community and the nation.19Being informed is an important cultural value because; it makes an individual knowledgeable about one‟s duties, responsibilities and rights in his/her society.
- Accountability and transparency: The society is supposed to perform its functions and duties with openness so that people know what the society understands of their society. Once this is done, peoples‟ expectations and wishes can be fulfilled. Transparency is very necessary for the development of people and the society at large.
1. Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). This is a collective name which describes procedures or practices that involve partial or total removal of the clitoris in the female genitalia or other parts of the female genital organ whether for cultural or other non-medical reasons. The female genital mutilation is a violation of basic human rights. Areas affected with this practice in Tanzania are Kilimanjaro, Dodoma, Arusha, Manyara, and Morogoro regions. In Dodoma, for example, 12, 613 out of 16, 789 (75%) of the women who went for delivery between 1988 – 2000 were mutilated.
- – To control women‟s sexuality. Societies which adopt this practice (FGM) know that biologically there are some parts of the body which are very sensitive during sexual intercourse. One of them is the clitoris. So to prevent a girl from developing interest in sexuality and become loose they mutilate it.
- – It is propounded that FGM goes with initiation ceremonies that promote young girls to women hood. Thus it is considered by some prestige traditional societies as a prestige and a sign of maturity among girls.
Marital conflicts due to sexual dissatisfaction. This situation can result from two reasons. Some men dislike women who are mutilated.
On the hand, circumcised women don‟t enjoy the sexual activity. Thus, they lack satisfaction in sexuality and may dislike sexuality altogether.Women who are mutilated develop a feeling of anxiety and depression.
This can be a result of the pain they feel during circumcision or due to the deformation of their pain they feel during circumcision or due to the deformation of their genitalia. This can cause psychological disturbance. The practice can lead to the loss of one‟s life. Some girls and women loss of blood from the cut part.
The last effect is possibility of getting the HIV/AIDS infection as this practice is done under unsafe conditions. Sometimes a single knife is used to circumcise several girls/women without being sterilized. For this case, those who are mutilated have the risk of being infected with HIV/ and may also get other diseases.
2. Wife inheritance: Wife inheritance is the process of taking one‟s wife after the death of her husband. Inheritance of wives can also be termed as inheritance of widows.This has been a major problem to the societies which practice this system of life these days. This is because those who tend to inherit widows can die due to the effects of HIV/AIDS because widows may be victims of HIV/AIDS and a person who inherits them will be infected. This endangers one‟s life. Inheritance of widows should be discouraged in the society in order to avoid the rate of transmission of different diseases such as HIV and AIDS. Also inheritance of widows seems to be a violation of human rights because it has turned women into objects of leisure form men. Widows appear to be there to be inherited to satisfy men who inherit them. Inheritance of widows should be discouraged strongly in the nation.
- Early marriage; This is the process/situation whereby a person gets married before his/her right age. Normally the suggested right age for marriage is 18 years and above. Nowadays marriages among people under the right age have been common. This has been happening especially to young girls who21are married while they are still in tender age. These types of marriages are sometimes accompanied by forced marriages.
- Forced marriage; Sometimes young girls have been forced to get married to men whom they do not want. Parents or guardian propound this situation perhaps for the aim of reducing the burden of children at home. Young girls are thus forced to be married rather than being forced to attend school.The reason is, some parents depend on the dowry or bride price they get as capital for production. This situation leads to forced marriages. These are some of the driving forces for early marriage because some societies think that bride price and dowry can help them to run different social and economic activities.
- The family: The family-level, it is a belief that boys will continue the lineage and support the family, while girls will get married. Thus most families prefer to educate boys or spend more money on them at the expenses of girls, when a choice has to be made between the two.
- Traditional institutions: Initiation ceremonies play a major role in perpetuating bias. Girls who have undergone initiation ceremonies become passive in school. Traditional counselors and elders initiate, girls with emphasis on submissiveness to men. Because of that, women do not take part in decision making at home.
- Learning Institutions: In these institutions it is a common practice that boys are offered science subjects and mathematics, while girls are made to study the traditional girls subjects29such as home economics and typing. More often there is also discrimination from some teachers, who expect boys to be more intelligent than girls. Girls are not encouraged to work hard.
- Religious institutions: Church or Mosque leaders make references to the Bible or Quran on the submissive nature of women. Women are denied opportunities to hold positions of leadership and decision making in those institutions. In some mosques land churches, decisions made usually discriminate women.
- Work place: The socialization process in the community has effects on the community has effects on the gender division of labour for boys and girls. Girls are marginalized from participating in education and decision making activities.
- With reference to sex there is unequal distribution of powers in all spheres of social life as in politics, economics, military and social sector.
- Women continue to be left out in areas of development.
- Women continue to face violence and aggression as they do not have any economic power base to support themselves.
- Girls lack the spirit of competition in class, leading to poor performance in school work.
- There are very few women at the managerial and decision –making levels.
- Knowledge of reproductive system, its functions and processes.
- Men and Women are informed of and have access to safe effective, affordable and acceptable methods of regulating fertility.
- People have access to health care services which include prevention and treatment of infertility reproductive tract infection and sexually transmitted infections and sexually transmitted infections.
- Promotion of mutual, respectful and fair gender relations.
- People are free to practice family planning.
- Maternal clinics, child vaccinations and immunization.
- Birth control by using contraceptive methods such as drugs devices and operations.Lack of reproductive health services can lead to severe consequences. For example, many children could die due to lack of immunity against curable diseases. Moreover, many women could die during pregnancy or soon after giving birth. Tanzania is one of those countries in the world whose birth rates are very high. It is currently estimated to be growing at the rate of 2 -8 percent. A high birth rate affects the development of31the country negatively. Non-proportional increase of people to the rate of economic growth hinders meaningful development.
- Prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STI‟s) including
- Prevention of HIV/AIDS. Unwanted pregnancies.
- Promotion of gender rights and equality.
- Improvement of women‟s safety during pregnancy and childbirth.
- Regulation of one‟s fertility.
- Prevention of major child diseases.
- Strengthening the management of infertility.
- Identification of reproductive tract infection and seeking their appropriate treatment.
- It ensures healthy motherhood, steady ad controlled population growth.
- Habits of marriage: In most African societies, there has been the practice of getting married to a woman by first fulfilling the condition of paying what is called bride- price. This price has stood as a payment paid for buying a commodity. Bride price paying has therefore acted as an enslaving factor for women. Two examples can help us to get a good picture of this cultural practice. A Sukuma woman married to a man with dowry of say twenty cattle, when she gives birth to a baby she compensates for the cattle given as bride price from her husband. If it is a baby girl the amount of cattle as compensation is a bit higher than a baby boy. Usually it was at the ratio of 5:4 until the amount of cattle paid is exhausted then the woman is counted liberated. If she wants to divorce for unbearable causes, she would be needed to repay the cattle in spite of her time spent with the husband and her labour in producing whatever agricultural products or any other material gains that she has contributed to the wellbeing of her family.33In other tribes particularly pastoral communities they have no regard to whatever the wife has contributed to the wellbeing of her family. If she is divorced, she will have to repay whatever amount of cattle was given to her father.Habit of food eating: In some tribes women are forbidden to eat certain types of food. The Wakerewe tribe in Mwanza puts a taboo forbidding woman to eat goat meat, eggs and dogfish. Such cultural customs were contributing to the poor health of women especially during pregnancy or nursing a baby.
- Decision Making: There has always been the cultural practice of excluding women in decision making in important domestic, economic and political issues. Women have been regarded as being unable to give good ideas on certain socioeconomic issues like marriage, education and the domestic budget.
- Poor health. This is due to the focus of the society that women should bear many children something that tends to weaken their health.
- Poor diet and little food.
- Lack of education.
- Too much work. Women work harder and for many hours than men.
- Maltreatment from their husbands. Some societies administer punishment over women. This cause physical injuries and psychological hopelessness.
- Female genital mutilation (women circumcision) can lead to the spread of HIV because the instruments used are nit sterilized and are used by the whole group being circumcised. Most of the instruments used are knives, razor blades, and pairs of scissors or any other sharp tools.
- Some tribes cut tribal marks on parts of the body of their kids claiming that they want to shed off the dirty blood. Also the instruments used are not changed so they can spread HIV to the kids.
- Inherited widows may contact or spread HIV from to men who inherit them.
- Certain traditional dances are accompanied by alcohol drinking which can draw men and women into sexual intercourse. Such practices may cause the spread of HIV.
- Local traditional midwives who are not well trained may spread HIV/AIDS to both mother and the newly born baby due to using unsterilized instruments.
- Polygamy may also be a potential cause of HIV/AIDS. Once one of the wives get HIV/AIDS all of them will also get it.
- Forced marriage can also create problems where someone is forced to be married to certain man or woman who may have unfortunately been infected with one of HIV/AIDS.
- Prolonged breeding during and after the mutilation.
- Disturbance of the natural vaginal elasticity during delivery due to the scar left after the mutilation.
- Reduction of sexual pleasure during sexual intercourse.
- Spread of sexual transmitted infections (STI‟s) because the instruments used are not sterilized and are used by the whole group being circumcised.
- Death because of excessive bleeding and STI‟s such as HIV/AIDS.
- Unequal distribution of powers in a community.
- Women being left out in areas of development.
- Lack of sprint of competition hence poor performance.
- Few women in managerial and decision making levels.
- Violence and aggression.
- Transmission of STI‟s especially when male witchdoctors demand to hold sexual intercourse with their clients their clients as a cure for some diseases.
- Despise modern health services and rely on local herbs some of which do not cure.
- Family conflict.
- Unnecessary deaths, etc.
- Rapid population increase.
- Transmission of STI‟s.
- Increase of street children.
- Contact of STI‟s including the HIV/AIDS.
- Conflicts between the inherited wife and the former/original wife of the husband.
- Long difficult labour because of immaturity of the reproductive organs.
- Sometimes babies are born too early (premature).
- Blocked births which may damage the uterus and rapture the bladder and can even cause death to the victim.
- Family conflicts
- Contact of sexually transmitted Infections (STIs).
- Violation of human rights to women who are sometimes treated as bought objects.
- Forced marriages conducted by parents after receiving dowry from the man intending to marry their daughter.
- Crimes, like beating of the bride when she refuses to obey.
- Prolonged breeding during and after the mutilation.
- Disturbance of the natural vaginal elasticity during delivery due to the scar left after the mutilation.
- Reduction of sexual pleasure during sexual intercourse.
- Spread of sexual transmitted infections (STI‟s) because the instruments used are not sterilized and are used by the whole group being circumcised.
- Death because of excessive bleeding and STI‟s such as HIV/AIDS.
- Unequal distribution of powers in a community.
- Women being left out in areas of development.
- Lack of sprint of competition hence poor performance.
- Few women in managerial and decision making levels.
- Violence and aggression.
- Transmission of STI‟s especially when male witchdoctors demand to hold sexual intercourse with their clients their clients as a cure for some diseases.
- Despise modern health services and rely on local herbs some of which do not cure.
- Family conflict.
- Unnecessary deaths, etc.
- Rapid population increase.
- Transmission of STI‟s.
- Increase of street children.
- Contact of STI‟s including the HIV/AIDS.
- Conflicts between the inherited wife and the former/original wife of the husband.
- Long difficult labour because of immaturity of the reproductive organs.
- Sometimes babies are born too early (premature).
- Blocked births which may damage the uterus and rapture the bladder and can even cause death to the victim.
- Family conflicts
- Contact of sexually transmitted Infections (STIs).
- Violation of human rights to women who are sometimes treated as bought objects.
- Forced marriages conducted by parents after receiving dowry from the man intending to marry their daughter.
- Crimes, like beating of the bride when she refuses to obey.
- The formation of women‟s social organizations. This will help them to have a collective bargaining power for their deprived rights. Through these organizations, women can ask for assistance from the government or donors in order to enable them to open various projects. Women‟s social organizations in Tanzania are like; WAMA (Wanawake na Maendeleo), TAWLA, TAMWA, etc.
- The governments have to ensure that women receive equal opportunities as men in all social, political and economic issues.
- The government should commit itself to the prohibition of all cultural practices and customs that oppress women like the female genital mutilation, polygamy, forced and early marriage etc.
- Educating men to put off the idea that they are created superior to women.
- To establish special programs for improving life standards of women especially in the rural areas.
- Improve the rural technology. To provide women with modern working facilities ploughs, milling machines.37
- To inculcate a sense of awareness to all members of society that, women are able people and can do everything like men. Therefore, they have capabilities of thinking and performing like men. This will stop old perceptions of looking women as enabled people.
- To improve and increase the education opportunities to women. If education opportunities will be improved to women, the development of the country will increase. Also the whole society will be almost educated if we refer to the slogan that says “When you educate women, you educated the whole society” To date, education opportunities to all in Tanzania is positively implementation , since the government has increased the chances for girls and women in education sector. For example there is a programme of enrolling more women students at the University of Dar es salaam who have been learning science subject when they were at secondary school (Advanced level).
- To improves access to the resources such as land, the situation which is still difficult to some societies in which women have no right to inherit resources such as land? However some societies have managed to reduce this problem. For example, in many tribes of Tanzania women have now rights to own property and equal access to natural resources.
- To participation in political matters and other economic activities. To justify this, the government has added more than 15% special seats in parliament for women in order to bring about gender balance and equal control of resources.
- To make people aware with all things which cause gender inequality? In general, the world is still emphasizing much on women empowerment through different forums and organization which try to defend the rights of people such as human rights.
- The entire society should be enlightened on the bad impacts of the negative aspects of our socio-cultural values.
- The government should enact strict laws against those who entertain the negative cultural values like the practice of witchcraft, the killing of twins, the handicapped and albinos.38
- The government should promote and encourage good leadership especially at the village government level, where problem related to the socio-cultural values are mostly experienced.
- They help to tackle problems which seem to be complex.
- They minimize conflicts, frustration and misunderstandings.
- They help people to overcome limitations in human mental machinery for perception memory and inference.
- They overcome constraints and inhibitions that limit the range of ones thinking.
- They help analysts achieve their full potential.Problems vary from potential.Problems can be those concerns with adolescents, reproductive health, family life issues socio-economic issues or environmental issue steps in production solving process.
- Definition of problem.
- Problem analysis endevour
- Generating possible solutions
- Analyzation of the solutions and;
- Selecting the best solution
HOW TO USE DIFFERENT LIFE SKILLS
- They help to tackle problems which seem to be complex.
- They minimize conflicts, frustration and misunderstandings.
- They help people to overcome limitations in human mental machinery for perception memory and inference.
- They overcome constraints and inhibitions that limit the range of ones thinking.
- They help analysts achieve their full potential.Problems vary from potential.Problems can be those concerns with adolescents, reproductive health, family life issues socio-economic issues or environmental issue steps in production solving process.
- Definition of problem.
- Problem analysis endevour
- Generating possible solutions
- Analyzation of the solutions and;
- Selecting the best solution
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